Argument for

The evolution of the human brain involved a series of genetic events that did not occur in other animals. These led to a highly complex organ that is unique to humans and sets us apart from other animals. The human brain gives us the ability to learn and use language, unlike any other species in the animal kingdom. It also enables us to store complex memories and gives us a sense of self-awareness, both of which are unrivalled.

Reference 
Joly O et al. Processing of vocalizations in humans and monkeys: a comparative fMRI study. NeuroImage 2012;62(3):1376-89.

Argument against

Many of the things that we thought made us unique are, in fact, widespread throughout the animal kingdom. Many different species have the ability to communicate in various ways that are not as complex as human speech but constitute a form of language. In addition, some animals have a well-developed sense of self: for example, elephants and dolphins can recognise themselves in a mirror, and some bird species can plan for the future – abilities that were thought to be unique to humans until recently.

Reference 
Plotnik JM et al. Self-recognition in an Asian elephant. PNAS 2006;103(45):17053-7. 

Argument for

Digital technology – particularly social media – is rewiring our brains in a harmful way. It decreases attention span, encourages instant gratification and makes people more self-centred. It also causes us to lack empathy and is having a detrimental effect on how we build relationships in real life. People are becoming addicted to the internet, and digital technology may also be linked to the increased number of young people being diagnosed with autism.

Reference 
Yuan K et al. Microstructure abnormalities in adolescents with internet addiction disorder. PLoS ONE 2011;6(6):e20708.

Argument against

The brain changes with experience, and technology is just one aspect of modern life that the brain is adapting to. There’s no evidence that that the brain changes caused by technology are harmful, that the internet is addictive or that the increased use of technology is linked to autism. In fact, some studies suggest that using social media websites can facilitate our relationships in real life.

Reference 
Pew Research Center. 2011. Social networking sites and our lives.

Argument for

Yes, people with brain damage should be held responsible for their actions. Although most neuroscientists agree that all behaviours are a product of brain function, the relationship between our brains and our behaviour is still unclear, and the presence of brain damage does not always indicate a person had an altered mental state. Brain-damaged criminals should therefore be held responsible for their actions and punished like everyone else, to prevent them from being a danger to themselves and to others and so they can be given treatment or rehabilitation.

Reference 
Udell M. 2009. Neuroscience, free will and criminal justice

Argument against

Damage to certain parts of the frontal lobe can impair people’s ability to make rational decisions and judgements, leading to changes in how they interact with others. In some cases, it can cause them to do things that they would not otherwise do, and therefore some brain-damaged people cannot be held fully responsible for their actions.

Reference 
Mobbs D et al. Law, responsibility and the brain. PLos Biol 2007;5(4):e103

Argument for

Teenagers know right from wrong, so the criminal justice system should not distinguish them from adult offenders. Teenagers convicted of criminal offences should be held accountable for their actions and punished by being put into prison. This will prevent them from being a danger to themselves and to others.

Reference 
Estudillo MO. 2001. Juveniles should be treated as adults in certain circumstances.

Argument against

According to recent research, the human prefrontal cortex – which is involved in functions such as decision-making – does not reach full maturity until nearly 30 years of age. This means that teenagers are not in full control of their actions, and this should be taken into account during sentencing. Teenage criminals, therefore, should be put into rehabilitation programs that attempt to curb bad behaviour.

Argument for

‘Smart drugs’ can benefit individuals by enhancing alertness and mental functions such as attention. This makes people more productive at work and is therefore beneficial for society as a whole. We have evolved sophisticated brains that enable us to invent drugs and technology that can improve how our brains work, and we should make the most of this.

Reference 
Bostrom, N. (2009). Cognitive Enhancement: Methods, ethics, regulatory challenges (pdf).

Ritalin (methylphenidate)

Ritalin is a drug prescribed to help children who suffer from attention deficit hyperactiveity disorder (ADHD), to improve their concentration. It works by stimulating the central nervous system.

Students who use it recreationally claim it helps them to concentrate, pull ‘all-nighters’ to revise for exams and gain better grades.

Modafinil

Modafinil is in a class of drugs called eugeroics and was originally used as treatment for narcolepsy, a chronic neurological disorder characterised by sudden and uncontrollable episodes of sleep.

Modafinil is now used by a growing number of students to combat fatigue owing to its ability to enhance wakefulness and attention capacity.

Hydergine (ergoloid mesylates)

Hydergine dilates the blood vessels of the brain, allowing more oxygen to flow to blood cells, and is used to help people with memory problems.

Studies show that hydergine, which has been used to treat people suffering from stroke or from Alzheimer’s disease, can enhance memory and learning.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a drug found in drinks, inclulding tea and coffee, and in some medicines. It speeds up activity in the brain and spinal cord.

Those who take so-called ‘smart drugs’ argue that it is no different to drinking a cup of coffee to aid revision. It is human nature to want to explore the potential of cognitive enhancers and to push ourselves.

Reference 
Farah M et al. 2004. Neurocognitive enhancement: what can we do and what should we do (pdf)?

Ritalin

Ritalin is a drug prescribed to help children who suffer from attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), to improve their concentration. It works by stimulating the central nervous system.

It is illegal to take Ritalin if it’s not prescribed. Its short-term side-effects include insomnia and anxiety, and its long-term effects are largely unknown.

Modafinil

Modafinil is in a class of drugs called ‘eugeroics’ and was originally used as a treatment for narcolepsy, a chronic neurological disorder characterised by sudden and uncontrollable episodes of sleep.

Modafinil has been used by soldiers during combat and by shiftworkers to help with sleep patterns. Would it help society if more people were able to use it and if they could access it in a regulated manner?

Hydergine (ergoloid mesylates)

Little is known about how cognitive enhancers work, and the people taking them for enhancement reasons may be taking an unknown risk for a relatively small improvement in performance.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a drug found in drinks, inclulding tea and coffee, and in some medicines. It speeds up activity in the brain and spinal cord.

Students who are not using drugs such as Ritalin to aid their revision might consider those who do to be cheating and may feel at an unfair disadvantage for not taking them. But where do you draw the line? Should stimulants such as caffeine and nicotine also be banned?

Cannabis is safer than alcohol because it does not kill people. Many studies published in recent years show that it effectively alleviates pain in dozens of medical conditions, including multiple sclerosis, and in some parts of the USA it has been licensed for medicinal use. Legalising cannabis would reduce the violent crime associated with drug dealing and would enable the drug to be regulated.

Reference 
Zamberletti E et al. The endocannabinoid system and schizophrenia: integration of evidence. Curr Pharm Des 2012;18(32):4980-90.

Argument against

The effects of smoking cannabis for long periods of time are still not known, and some studies suggest that using the drug could increase the risk of mental illness. Some people also argue that cannabis is a ‘gateway drug’ that leads users onto stronger substances such as cocaine and heroin.

Reference 

Argument for

It’s all down to a molecule called oxytocin. Oxytocin is sometimes called the ‘love molecule’ or the ‘cuddle hormone’. Studies in prairie voles show that it strengthens the bond between two individuals and promotes feelings such as trust. By contrast, blocking the effects of oxytocin makes these otherwise monogamous animals behave promiscuously. The latest research on humans confirms this – one new study shows that spraying oxytocin into attached men’s noses made them stay further away from women they found attractive (Scheele et al, J Neurosci 2012).

Reference 
Ross HE et al. Variation in oxytocin receptor density in nucleus accumbens has differential effects on affiliative behaviours in monogamous and polygamous voles. J Neurosci.  2009;29(5):1312-8.

Argument against

The function of oxytocin is far more complex than this. Oxytocin does play a part in pair bonding, but it is involved in many other things and cannot be thought of as a ‘love molecule’. We know, for example, that it can also enhance feelings such as jealousy and schadenfreude (taking pleasure in other people’s misfortunes).

Reference 
Kemp AH. The role of oxytocin in human affect: a novel hypothesis.Curr Dir Pyschol Sci 2011;20(4):222-31.

Argument for

Alcohol is a dangerous substance that is toxic to the brain. It can cause permanent brain damage when taken in excess, leading to a decline in mental function. It is also a leading cause of death in the Western world. In 2010, there were nearly 9000 alcohol-related deaths in the UK alone, and that outnumbers the deaths caused by all illegal drugs combined.

Reference 
ONS. 2012. Alcohol-related Deaths in the UK, 2010. 
Taffe MA et al. Long-lasting reduction in hippocampal neurogenesis by alcohol consumption in adolescent nonhuman primates.

Argument against

Many studies suggest that small amounts of alcohol on a regular basis can actually have health benefits. These studies show that drinking moderate amounts of alcohol protects us against heart disease and associated conditions such as stroke, and one study even showed that moderate alcohol consumption can improve certain mental functions in middle-aged people.

Reference 
Pentney RJ. Measurements of dendritic path lengths provide evidence that ethanol-induced lengthening of terminal dendritic segments may result from dendritic regression. Alcohol and Alcoholism 1995;30(1):87-96.